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Late-time Spectral Observations of Type IIP Supernovae
- Jeffrey M. Silverman, Stephanie Pickett, J. Craig Wheeler, Alexei V. Filippenko
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- Journal:
- Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union / Volume 11 / Issue A29B / August 2015
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 27 October 2016, p. 472
- Print publication:
- August 2015
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We are analysing late-time (older than about 150 d past explosion) optical spectra of Type II-Plateau (IIP) supernovae (SNe), which are H-rich SNe that come from red supergiant (RSG) progenitors. The dataset includes nearly 100 spectra of about 40 objects, making this the largest sample of SN IIP nebular spectra ever investigated. Quantitative criteria from within the spectra themselves are employed to determine if an observation is truly nebular, and thus should be included in the study. We present the temporal evolution of the fluxes, shapes, and velocities of various emission lines (see, for example, Fig. 1). These measured values are also compared to photometric data in order to search for correlations that can allow us to gain insight into the diversity of RSG progenitors and learn more about the details of the explosion itself.
Contributors
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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
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- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
- Published online:
- 05 August 2015
- Print publication:
- 27 April 2015, pp ix-xxx
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
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- 05 August 2012
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Contributors
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- By Ashok Agarwal, Joseph P Alukal, Deborah J Anderson, Linda D Applegarth, Saleh Binsaleh, Elizabeth M Bloom, Karen E Boyle, Nancy L Brackett, Robert E Brannigan, James V Bruckner, Victor M Brugh, Ettore Caroppo, Grace M Centola, Aleksander Chudnovsky, Susan L Crockin, Fnu Deepinder, David M. Fenig, Aaron B Grotas, Matthew P. Hardy, Wayne J. G. Hellstrom, Stanton C Honig, Stuart S Howards, Keith Jarvi, Rajasingam S Jeyendran, William E Kaplan, Edward Karpman, Sanjay S Kasturi, Mohit Khera, Nancy A Klein, Dolores J Lamb, Jane M Lewis, Larry I Lipshultz, Kirk C Lo, Charles M Lynne, R. Dale McClure, Antoine A Makhlouf, Myles Margolis, Clara I. Marín-Briggiler, Randall B Meacham, Jesse N Mills, John P Mulhall, Alexander Müller, Christine Mullin, Harris M Nagler, Craig S Niederberger, Robert D Oates, Dana A Ohl, E. Charles Osterberg, Rodrigo L Pagani, Vassilios Papadopoulos, Joseph A Politch, Gail S Prins, Angela A Reese, Susan A Rothmann, Edmund S Sabanegh, Denny Sakkas, Jay I Sandlow, Richard A Schoor, Paulo C Serafini, Mark Sigman, Suresh C Sikka, Rebecca Z Sokol, Jens Sønksen, Miguel Srougi, James Stelling, Justin Tannir, Anthony J Thomas, Paul J Turek, Terry T Turner, Mónica H. Vazquez-Levin, Moshe Wald, Thomas J Walsh, Thomas M Wheeler, Daniel H Williams, Armand Zini, Barry R Zirkin
- Edited by Larry I. Lipshultz, Stuart S. Howards, University of Virginia, Craig S. Niederberger, University of Illinois, Chicago
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- Infertility in the Male
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- 19 May 2010
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- 24 September 2009, pp vii-x
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DIVISION VIII / WORKING GROUP SUPERNOVA
- Wolfgang Hillebrandt, Brian P. Schmidt, Edward Baron, Stefano Benetti, Sergey I. Blinnikov, Sergey I. Blinnikov, David R. Branch, Enrico Cappellaro, Alexei V. Filippenko, Claes Fransson, Peter M. Garnavich, Daniel W. E. Green, Ariel M. Goobar, Mario Hamuy, Peter H. Hauschildt, Robert P. Kirshner, Bruno Leibundgut, Daniel J. Lennon, Eric J. Lentz, Peter Lundqvist, Robert McGraw, Paolo A. Mazzali, W. Peter S. Meikle, Anthony Mezzacappa, Jens C. Niemeyer, Ken'ichi Nomoto, Reynald Pain, Nino Panagia, Ferdinando Patat, Mark M. Phillips, Elena Pian, Guiliano Pignata, Philipp Podsiadlowski, María Pilar Ruiz-Lapuente, Elaine M. Sadler, Brian P. Schmidt, Peter O. Shull, Jason Spyromilio, Nicholas B. Suntzeff, Friedrich-Karl Thielemann, Christopher Tout, Virginia L. Trimble, James W. Truran, Dmitry Yu. Tsvetkov, Massimo Turatto, Massimo della Valle, Schuyler Van Dyk, Wolfgang H. Voges, Nicholas A. Walton, Lifan Wang, J. Craig Wheeler, Kurt W. Weiler, Patricia A. Whitelock, Stanford E. Woosley, Hitoshi Yamaoka, Gang Zhao
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- Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union / Volume 4 / Issue T27A / December 2008
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- 01 December 2008, pp. 295-297
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- December 2008
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The Supernova Working Group was re-established at the IAU XXV General Assembly in Sydney, 21 July 2003, sponsored by Commissions 28 (Galaxies) and 47 (Cosmology). Here we report on some of its activities since 2005.
3 - Dancing with stars: binary stellar evolution
- J. Craig Wheeler, University of Texas, Austin
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- Cosmic Catastrophes
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- 14 September 2009
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- 04 January 2007, pp 42-54
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Summary
MULTIPLE STARS
Cecelia Payne-Gaposhkin was a pioneer of modern astronomy. She devoted much of her research to the study of multiple star systems and coined a comic adage to describe one of the basic tenets of that work: “Three out of every two stars are in a binary system.” By this she meant to illustrate that roughly half the stars in the sky have companion stars in orbit. If you were to look closely at half the stars you would find that there are two stars, where a more casual examination would have revealed only one point of light. Many people know that the nearest star to the Sun is Alpha Centauri. Less well known is that Alpha Centauri has a companion in wide orbit, known as Proxima Centauri. A closer examination shows that Alpha Centauri itself is not a single star but has a closely orbiting companion as well. Of the “two” stars closest to the Sun, three are in the same mutually orbiting stellar system.
Stars occur in many combinations. Single stars and pairs are most common, but some systems contain four or five stars in mutual orbit. In this chapter, we will concentrate on the systems with a pair of stars, double stars, or, somewhat more technically, binary stars (but we try to refer to the phenomenon of duplicity, not the word “binarity” born of mangled jargon that has crept into the literature). Binary stars come in two basic classes: wide and close.
Cosmic Catastrophes
- Exploding Stars, Black Holes, and Mapping the Universe
- 2nd edition
- J. Craig Wheeler
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- Published online:
- 14 September 2009
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- 04 January 2007
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From supernovae and gamma-ray bursts to the accelerating Universe, this is an exploration of the intellectual threads that lead to some of the most exciting ideas in modern astrophysics and cosmology. This fully updated second edition incorporates new material on binary stars, black holes, gamma-ray bursts, worm-holes, quantum gravity and string theory. It covers the origins of stars and their evolution, the mechanisms responsible for supernovae, and their progeny, neutron stars and black holes. It examines the theoretical ideas behind black holes and their manifestation in observational astronomy and presents neutron stars in all their variety known today. This book also covers the physics of the twentieth century, discussing quantum theory and Einstein's gravity, how these two theories collide, and the prospects for their reconciliation in the twenty-first century. This will be essential reading for undergraduate students in astronomy and astrophysics, and an excellent, accessible introduction for a wider audience.
5 - White dwarfs: quantum dots
- J. Craig Wheeler, University of Texas, Austin
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- Cosmic Catastrophes
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- 14 September 2009
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- 04 January 2007, pp 68-78
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Summary
SINGLE WHITE DWARFS
White dwarfs are certainly the most common stellar “corpses” in the Galaxy. There may be more white dwarfs than all the other stars combined. The reason is that low-mass stars are born more frequently, and low-mass stars create white dwarfs. In addition, after a white dwarf forms, it sticks around, slowly cooling off, supported by the quantum pressure of its electrons. This means that the vast majority of the white dwarfs ever created in the Galaxy are still there. The exceptions are a few that explode or collapse because of the presence of a binary companion. There are probably ten billion and maybe a hundred billion white dwarfs in the Galaxy. Most white dwarfs have a mass very nearly 0.6 times the mass of the Sun. A few have smaller mass, and a few have larger mass. Exactly why the distribution of the masses is this way is not totally understood.
White dwarfs provide clues to the evolution of the stars that gave them birth. To fully reveal the story, astronomers need to probe the insides of the white dwarf. Ed Nather and Don Winget at the University of Texas invented a very effective technique to do this. The technique uses the seismology of the white dwarfs to reveal their interior structure, just as geologists use earthquakes to probe the inner Earth. Under special circumstances, depending on their temperature, white dwarfs naturally oscillate in response to the flow of radiation from their insides.
6 - Supernovae: stellar catastrophes
- J. Craig Wheeler, University of Texas, Austin
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- Cosmic Catastrophes
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- 14 September 2009
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- 04 January 2007, pp 79-117
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OBSERVATIONS
Which stars explode? Which collapse? Which outwit the villain gravity and settle down to a quiet old age as a white dwarf? Astrophysicists are beginning to block out answers to these questions. We know that a quiet death eludes some stars. Astronomers observe some stars exploding as supernovae, a sudden brightening by which a single star becomes as bright as an entire galaxy. Estimates of the energy involved in such a process reveal that a major portion of the star, if not the entire star, must be blown to smithereens.
Historical records, particularly the careful data recorded by the Chinese, show that seven or eight supernovae have exploded over the last 2000 years in our portion of the Galaxy. The supernova of 1006 was the brightest ever recorded. One could read by this supernova at night. Astronomers throughout the Middle and Far East observed this event.
The supernova of 1054 is by far the most famous, although this event is clearly not the only so-called “Chinese guest star.” This explosion produced the rapidly expanding shell of gas that modern astronomers identify as the Crab nebula. The supernova of 1054 was apparently recorded first by the Japanese and was also clearly mentioned by the Koreans, although the Chinese have the most careful records. There is a suspicion that Native Americans recorded the event in rock paintings and perhaps on pottery, but other evidence is that the symbols are generic.
Frontmatter
- J. Craig Wheeler, University of Texas, Austin
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- Cosmic Catastrophes
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- 14 September 2009
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8 - Neutron stars: atoms with attitude
- J. Craig Wheeler, University of Texas, Austin
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- Cosmic Catastrophes
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- 14 September 2009
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- 04 January 2007, pp 141-175
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HISTORY – THEORY LEADS, FOR ONCE
In 1932, the brilliant Russian physicist Lev Landau argued on general grounds that the newly discovered quantum pressure could not support a mass much in excess of 1 solar mass. He addressed his discussion to electrons, but the type of particle did not matter. In 1933, the neutron was discovered, after Landau's paper had been submitted. In retrospect, Landau's arguments applied to the quantum pressure of neutrons as well. An object supported by the quantum pressure of neutrons should be smaller and denser than a white dwarf, but it should have nearly the same maximum mass, about 1 solar mass.
Fritz Zwicky of Caltech was one of the world's first active supernova observers. Quick on the pickup, Zwicky suggested in 1934 that supernovae result from the energy liberated in forming a neutron star. Not until a year later, in 1935, did the precocious young Indian physicist, Subramanyan Chandrasekhar, present his rigorous derivation of the nature of the quantum pressure and the mass limit to white dwarfs that bears his name.
Robert Oppenheimer made history with his leadership of the Manhattan Project, but among his most widely known papers are two published with students in 1939. The first of these papers used the complete theory of general relativity for the first time to estimate the upper mass limit of neutron stars to be 0.7 solar mass. The second paper explored the result of violating that limit with the resulting production of a black hole.
11 - Gamma-ray bursts, black holes and the Universe: long, long ago and far, far away
- J. Craig Wheeler, University of Texas, Austin
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- Cosmic Catastrophes
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- 14 September 2009
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- 04 January 2007, pp 229-262
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GAMMA-RAY BURSTS: YET ANOTHER COSMIC MYSTERY
There was a revolution in astronomy in the first few months of 1997. A major breakthrough occurred in one of the outstanding mysteries of modern astrophysics, the cosmic gamma-ray bursts. This story began in the 1960s. The United States launched a series of satellites that orbited the Earth at great distance, halfway to the Moon. They were called the Vela series, and they were designed to detect gamma rays and other high-energy photons and particles. If it strikes you that there must be something special about them to be so far from Earth, you are on the right track. They were not designed for astronomy, but primarily to detect terrestrial nuclear-bomb tests. They were also intended to study the background, other natural sources of high-energy photons and particles in the solar wind and the Earth's magnetosphere, to aid in the separation of bomb signals from natural signals.
Stirling Colgate was on the team in Geneva in 1959 working on the treaty to ban space, atmospheric, and underwater nuclear tests. He had done some calculations that suggested that when a supernova shock wave broke through the surface of the star there could be a pulse of gamma rays (see Section 11.4 in this chapter for an update of this topic). He was afraid that such an event would be misunderstood as a nuclear bomb and might trigger a serious miscalculation by one side or the other.
4 - Accretion disks: flat stars
- J. Craig Wheeler, University of Texas, Austin
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- Cosmic Catastrophes
- Published online:
- 14 September 2009
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- 04 January 2007, pp 55-67
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THE THIRD OBJECT
One of the major developments of mid-twentieth-century stellar astrophysics was the understanding that there is often a third “object” in a binary star system, especially in a system undergoing mass transfer. Matter from one star swirls around the other forming a configuration known as an accretion disk. Such disks were first recognized in the study of white dwarfs in binary systems. With the advent of X-ray astronomy, it became particularly clear that accretion disks play a prominent role in binary systems containing neutron stars and black holes. In many circumstances, the accretion disk is the primary source of visible light; in others, the disk is also the primary source of X-ray radiation and, in yet others, the disk channels matter into streams of outgoing material and energy. One dramatic fact is that, without accretion disks, we would not yet have discovered any stellar-mass black holes.
One star in a binary system must undergo mass transfer to feed the disk with the matter needed for the disk to exist at all. The disk forms around the star receiving the transferred mass. An accretion disk thus also depends on a more ordinary star (considering black holes to be “ordinary” in this context!) for the gravity to hold the disk together. Given this support from the two stars in the binary system – one to provide matter, one to provide gravity – the accretion disk then effectively has a life of its own.
1 - Setting the stage: star formation and hydrogen burning in single stars
- J. Craig Wheeler, University of Texas, Austin
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- Cosmic Catastrophes
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- 14 September 2009
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- 04 January 2007, pp 1-26
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INTRODUCTION
We look up on a dark night and wonder at the stars in their brilliant isolation. The stars are not, however, truly isolated. They are one remarkable phase in a web of interconnections that unite them with the Universe and with us as human beings. These connections range from physics on the tiniest microscopic scale to the grandest reaches in the Universe. Stars can live for times that span the age of the Universe, but they can also undergo dramatic changes on human timescales. They are born from great clouds of gas and return matter to those clouds, seeding new stars. They produce the heavy elements necessary to make not only planets but also life as we know it. The elements forged in stars compose humans who wonder at the nature of it all. Our origin and fate are bound to that of the stars. To study and understand the stars in all their manifestations, from our life-giving Sun to black holes, is to deepen our understanding of the role of humans in the unfolding drama of nature.
This book will focus on the exotica of stars, their catastrophic deaths, and their transfigurations into bizarre objects like white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. This will lead us from the stellar mundane to the frontiers of physics. We will see how stars work, how astronomers have come to understand them, how new knowledge of them is sought, how they are used to explore the Universe, and how they lead us to contemplate some of the grandest questions ever posed.
Preface
- J. Craig Wheeler, University of Texas, Austin
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- Cosmic Catastrophes
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- 14 September 2009
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- 04 January 2007, pp xi-xviii
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The core of this book concerns supernovae, my principal research interest, but the broader theme is the connection of these cosmic catastrophes with the sweep of intellectual ferment in astrophysics. The story leads from the birth, evolution, and death of stars to the notion of complete collapse in a black hole, to wormhole time machines, the possible birth of new universes, and the prospect of a conceptual revolution in our views of space and time in a ten-dimensional string theory. It is all one glorious, interconnected Universe, both physically and intellectually. Or maybe there are more than one.
In terms of astrophysical connections, the book reaches back to the origins of stars and how they evolve, treats the mechanisms of supernovae, and then moves forward to the compact progeny of supernovae – neutron stars and black holes. Neutron stars are presented in all the variety we know today – pulsars, millisecond pulsars, binary pulsars, magnetars, and X-ray sources both steady and transient. The concrete manifestation of black holes in observational astronomy, especially in binary stellar systems, is described. Topics that have come to light as the book was being written, soft gamma-ray repeaters and the revolution in cosmic gamma-ray bursts, are presented. The scientific background is given in order to understand what kind of supernovae are used to produce the radical notion of the acceleration of the Universe, and how and why. Similar background aids in making the connection between flaring gamma-ray sources and compact objects.
14 - Beyond: the frontiers
- J. Craig Wheeler, University of Texas, Austin
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- Cosmic Catastrophes
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- 14 September 2009
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- 04 January 2007, pp 297-327
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13 - Wormholes and time machines: tunnels in space and time
- J. Craig Wheeler, University of Texas, Austin
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- Cosmic Catastrophes
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- 14 September 2009
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- 04 January 2007, pp 286-296
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THE MYSTERY OF TIME
“Time is the fire in which we all burn,” says a character in a Star Trek movie. This quote captures the hold that time has on our imaginations. Time, especially the fascinating and philosophically thorny issue of time travel, has been a common topic of science fiction since the classic story of H. G. Wells. The ability to manipulate time remains beyond our grasp, but physicists have conducted a remarkable exploration of time in the last decade that once again brings us to the frontiers of physics.
Separation of time from space has been a part of physical thinking since at least the era of Galileo. The equations physicists use to describe Nature are symmetric in time. They do not differentiate time running forward from time running backward. A movie of dust particles floating in a sunbeam would look essentially the same run forward or backward. If the projectionist ran a regular film backward, you would notice immediately. Where does the difference, the “arrow of time,” arise? Why is it that we age from teenage to middle age, but not the other way around? Is that progression immutable?
New approaches to thinking about time came from new thinking about the connectedness of space, and all that came from the desire to make a film that could, among other things, explore issues of science and faith.
WORMHOLES
This particular attack on time travel arose from a work of science fiction.
9 - Black holes in theory: into the abyss
- J. Craig Wheeler, University of Texas, Austin
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- Cosmic Catastrophes
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- 14 September 2009
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- 04 January 2007, pp 176-206
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WHY BLACK HOLES?
Black holes have become a cultural icon. Although few people understand the physical and mathematical innards of the black holes that Einstein's equations reveal, nearly everyone understands the symbolism of black holes as yawning maws that swallow everything and let nothing out. Can there be any compelling reason to understand more deeply a trivialized cultural metaphor? The answer, for anyone interested in the nature of the world around us, is an emphatic yes! Black holes represent far more than a simple metaphor for loss and despair. Although black holes may form from stars, they are not stars. They are objects of pure space and time that have transcended their stellar birthright. The first glimmers of the possibility of black holes arose in the eighteenth century. Two hundred years later, they are still on the forefront of science. In the domain of astronomy, there is virtual certainty that astronomers have detected black holes, that they are a reality in our Universe. In the domain of physics, black holes are on the vanguard of intellectual thought. They play a unique and central role in the quest to develop a “theory of everything,” a deeper comprehension of the essence of space and time, an understanding of the origin and fate of our Universe.
There is a certain inevitability to black holes in a gravitating Universe. Einstein's theory says that for sufficiently compressed matter, gravity will overwhelm all other forces. The reason lies in the fundamental equation, E = mc2.
7 - Supernova 1987A: lessons and enigmas
- J. Craig Wheeler, University of Texas, Austin
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- Cosmic Catastrophes
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- 14 September 2009
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- 04 January 2007, pp 118-140
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THE LARGE MAGELLANIC CLOUD AWAKES
The first supernova discovered in 1987 turned out to be the most spectacular supernova since the invention of the telescope. SN 1987A was the first supernova easily observable with the naked eye since the one recorded by Kepler in 1604. This event also brought the first direct confirmation that our basic picture of the exotic processes that mark the death of a massive star is correct. SN 1987A is the best-studied supernova ever, but the story is still unfolding, and there is much to learn.
SN 1987A did not explode in our Galaxy, but in a nearby satellite galaxy to our own Milky Way galaxy. This satellite galaxy cannot be seen from the northern hemisphere. The first European to record it was Magellan during his epic attempt to sail around the world. In English, it carries the name of the Large Magellanic Cloud for this reason. People native to the southern hemisphere were undoubtedly familiar with it before that. The Aborigines living around Sydney had long had another name for it: Calgalleon, which had to do with a woolly sheep. The Large Magellanic Cloud has a somewhat smaller companion that has picked up the unimaginative name, Small Magellanic Cloud. In the same Aboriginal dialect, it was rendered Gnarrangalleon. There is poetry!
The Large Magellanic Cloud is only 150 000 light years away, as shown in Figure 7.1. This is not much farther than the span across the Milky Way itself, about 50 000 light years.
10 - Black holes in fact: exploring the reality
- J. Craig Wheeler, University of Texas, Austin
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- Cosmic Catastrophes
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- 14 September 2009
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- 04 January 2007, pp 207-228
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THE SEARCH FOR BLACK HOLES
Black holes, those made from stars, are really black! How can we hope to find them if they do exist? Some solitary massive stars may collapse to make isolated black holes drifting through the emptiness of space. There could be very many of these black holes. Estimates based on the number of massive stars that have died in the history of our Galaxy range from one to a hundred million black holes. The simple fact is that, until a space probe stumbles into one, we are likely never to detect this class of isolated, single black holes. We will certainly never see the black hole itself in any circumstances because no light emerges from it. Our only chance to detect the presence of a black hole is to find a situation where mass is plunging down a black hole, heats, and radiates. We can hope to detect the halo of radiation from such an accreting black hole, even if we never see the black hole itself. Black holes are so strange and so significant that the standard of proof must be exceedingly high. As we will see, the evidence is very strong, but still largely circumstantial.
Many astronomers search for giant black holes in the centers of galaxies. The evidence for those black holes has become rather strong in the last few years, but most of the evidence still involves matter moving far beyond the event horizon, and we know very little about the configuration of the accreting matter.